C180 Milestone 1 Study Notes

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Western Governors University

C180 Introduction to Psychology

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Date

UNIT 1 — MILESTONE 1

Classic Psychological Studies: Communicating Observed Behavior

In psychology, description is the process of clearly articulating observed behaviors. While observation is about directly witnessing or measuring behavior, description involves organizing and communicating these observations in a scientific and systematic way. This accurate transmission of behavioral information is essential because it enables researchers to share their findings, replicate studies, and deepen understanding of psychological phenomena (American Psychological Association [APA], 2020).

Question	Answer	Explanation
In psychology, communicating what you see happening with behavior is known as __________.	Description	Observation refers to perceiving behavior, while description involves conveying those perceptions clearly to others.

Goals and Definitions: Focus of Behaviorists

Behaviorism is a key psychological approach that emphasizes observable behavior rather than internal mental states. Behaviorists argue that environmental factors and learning experiences shape behavior. Through mechanisms like classical and operant conditioning, behaviors can be predicted, altered, and controlled (Skinner, 1953). This focus on stimuli and responses separates behaviorism from other schools of thought in psychology.

Question	Answer	Explanation
Behaviorists study __________.	The effects of learning and the environment on behavior	Behaviorists examine observable behavior influenced by external stimuli, excluding internal mental processes.

History of Psychological Theories: Behaviorism and Gestalt – Stimulus and Response

Behaviorism is built on the principle that an external stimulus triggers a response—a behavioral reaction. Learning happens by associating stimuli with responses, which can lead to habitual behaviors over time (Watson, 1913).

Key Terms	Definitions
Stimulus	Any event or situation that provokes a behavioral reaction.
Response	The behavior that follows a stimulus.

Research Design in Psychology: Independent Variables

In psychological experiments, independent variables are those factors deliberately manipulated by researchers to assess their impact on dependent variables. Changing these variables allows scientists to infer causal relationships (Field, 2018).

Question	Answer	Explanation
Variables in an experiment that are changed and controlled by the experimenter are called __________.	Independent variables	These variables are manipulated to observe their effect on dependent outcomes.

Factors That Impact Research Results: Controlling Bias

A double-blind study is an experimental method that helps prevent bias by ensuring neither the participants nor the experimenters know who is in the control or experimental group. This approach safeguards the objectivity of the results by reducing both conscious and unconscious influence (Rosenthal & Rosnow, 2008).

Question	Answer	Explanation
__________ is a method of controlling bias in which both the experimenter and the subjects do not know who is experiencing the experimental conditions.	A double-blind study	This method reduces bias and enhances the reliability and validity of research findings.

Three Levels of Analysis: Biological Perspective

The biological perspective in psychology stresses the role of genetics, brain functions, and evolutionary influences on behavior. It investigates how inherited traits and neurobiological mechanisms shape psychological processes, grounding behavior in physical and evolutionary contexts (Pinel, 2017).

Question	Answer	Explanation
Which perspective emphasizes the role of genetics and natural selection in the development of human behavior?	Biological perspective	This viewpoint explores how biology—including genetics and brain function—affects behavior across time.

History of Psychological Theories: Structuralism, Functionalism, and Freud – Founder of Psychodynamic Theory

Sigmund Freud founded psychodynamic theory, which suggests that unconscious drives, childhood experiences, and internal conflicts significantly influence behavior. Freud believed that many psychological disorders stem from unresolved unconscious conflicts rather than purely physical causes (Freud, 1923).

Question	Answer	Explanation
Who founded psychodynamic theory?	Sigmund Freud	Freud emphasized the unconscious mind’s role in influencing conscious behavior and psychological disorders.

History of Psychological Theories: Cognitive Psychology and Humanism – Humanism and the Hierarchy of Needs

Humanistic psychology, led by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers, focuses on personal growth and self-actualization. Maslow developed the hierarchy of needs, a motivational theory describing how individuals move from satisfying basic physiological needs to achieving psychological fulfillment and self-realization (Maslow, 1943).

Question	Answer	Explanation
Which scientist significantly contributed to humanistic psychology through the hierarchy of needs?	Abraham Maslow	Maslow’s hierarchy outlines motivation as a stepwise progression through various human needs.

The Scientific Method and Research Methods: Biased Samples

A biased sample occurs when the group selected for research does not accurately represent the broader population. Such sampling threatens the validity and generalizability of research findings. To minimize bias, researchers use random sampling techniques to ensure more representative samples (Gravetter & Forzano, 2020).

Question	Answer	Explanation
What describes a biased sample?	A sample that is not representative of a population	Biased samples reduce the validity and applicability of research results.

Ethics in Psychological Research: APA Code of Conduct

The American Psychological Association (APA) provides ethical standards designed to protect participants’ rights and welfare in research. The APA Code of Conduct highlights key principles such as informed consent, confidentiality, and minimizing harm, which promote integrity and respect in psychological research (APA, 2017).

Question	Answer	Explanation
What is a central focus of the APA Professional Code of Conduct for psychologists?	Protecting the welfare of clients	The code establishes ethical guidelines to ensure participants’ safety and uphold research ethics.

References

American Psychological Association. (2017). Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct. https://www.apa.org/ethics/code

American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.). APA.

Field, A. (2018). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics (5th ed.). SAGE Publications.

Freud, S. (1923). The ego and the id. W.W. Norton & Company.

C180 Milestone 1 Study Notes

Gravetter, F. J., & Forzano, L. B. (2020). Research methods for the behavioral sciences (7th ed.). Cengage Learning.

Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), 370–396.

Pinel, J. P. J. (2017). Biopsychology (10th ed.). Pearson Education.

Rosenthal, R., & Rosnow, R. L. (2008). Essentials of behavioral research: Methods and data analysis (3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill.

Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior. Macmillan.

Watson, J. B. (1913). Psychology as the behaviorist views it. Psychological Review, 20(2), 158–177.