NU505 Unit 1 Seminar
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NU505 Clinical Epidemiology and Population Health Promotion
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Understanding Epidemiology and Health Promotion in Nursing
Epidemiology and health promotion are essential pillars of nursing because they help healthcare professionals understand disease patterns, identify health risks, prevent illness, and improve the well-being of individuals and communities. By combining epidemiological research with evidence-based health promotion strategies, nurses can make informed clinical decisions, reduce health disparities, and improve population health outcomes.
Modern nursing extends far beyond treating illness. Nurses are expected to analyze health data, educate patients, implement preventive interventions, and collaborate with communities to address the social, environmental, and behavioral factors that influence health. A strong understanding of epidemiology and health promotion enables nurses to provide patient-centered care while supporting public health initiatives that create healthier populations.
Healthcare organizations worldwide increasingly emphasize prevention rather than treatment alone. As a result, epidemiology and health promotion have become fundamental components of evidence-based nursing practice, helping healthcare professionals improve quality of care while reducing preventable diseases and healthcare costs.
Epidemiology examines the distribution and determinants of disease in populations, while health promotion focuses on preventing illness and improving health through education, policy, and evidence-based interventions.
Why Epidemiology and Health Promotion Matter in Nursing
Nurses play a critical role in protecting and improving community health. Their responsibilities now include disease prevention, health education, risk assessment, and population-based care in addition to direct patient treatment.
Understanding epidemiology allows nurses to identify patterns of illness, recognize emerging health threats, and develop targeted interventions for individuals and communities. Health promotion complements this work by encouraging healthy behaviors and creating environments that support long-term wellness.
Together, these disciplines help nurses:
Identify populations at increased risk of disease.
Prevent the spread of infectious diseases.
Reduce the burden of chronic illnesses.
Improve patient education and self-management.
Support evidence-based clinical decision-making.
Promote healthier communities through preventive care.
By integrating these concepts into everyday practice, nurses improve patient outcomes while contributing to stronger public health systems.
What Is Epidemiology?
Epidemiology is the scientific study of how diseases and health-related conditions occur, spread, and affect populations. Rather than focusing only on individual patients, epidemiology examines groups of people to understand patterns, causes, and risk factors that influence health outcomes.
Healthcare professionals rely on epidemiology to answer important public health questions such as:
Who is affected by a disease?
Where is the disease occurring?
When do outbreaks happen?
Why are certain populations at greater risk?
How can diseases be prevented or controlled?
The answers to these questions guide healthcare planning, disease prevention strategies, resource allocation, and public health policy.
Epidemiology provides the scientific foundation for identifying disease patterns, monitoring health trends, and developing evidence-based interventions that improve population health.
Objectives of Epidemiology
The primary purpose of epidemiology is to improve the health of populations through scientific investigation and data-driven decision-making.
Key objectives include:
Identifying disease patterns and trends.
Determining the causes of illness.
Measuring disease frequency within populations.
Recognizing behavioral, environmental, and genetic risk factors.
Preventing disease outbreaks.
Evaluating the effectiveness of healthcare interventions.
Supporting evidence-based clinical practice.
Informing healthcare policies and public health programs.
These objectives enable healthcare professionals to implement targeted interventions that improve community health while minimizing preventable illnesses.
Importance of Epidemiology in Nursing Practice
Epidemiological principles are applied across hospitals, clinics, schools, long-term care facilities, and community health programs. Nurses use epidemiological data to assess health risks, prioritize interventions, and evaluate healthcare outcomes.
Common nursing applications include:
Monitoring infectious disease outbreaks.
Identifying vulnerable populations.
Supporting vaccination programs.
Managing chronic diseases.
Evaluating healthcare quality initiatives.
Improving patient education.
Participating in disease surveillance.
Contributing to public health planning.
For example, during influenza season, nurses analyze infection trends to educate high-risk patients about vaccination, hand hygiene, and early symptom recognition. Similarly, epidemiological data help nurses develop prevention strategies for chronic conditions such as diabetes, hypertension, obesity, and cardiovascular disease.
Learning Outcomes for Nursing Students
Studying epidemiology and health promotion equips nursing students with the knowledge and skills needed to analyze health data, develop preventive interventions, and improve healthcare delivery across diverse populations.
Analyze Population Health Data
Students learn to interpret morbidity, mortality, incidence, and prevalence data to identify health trends and prioritize interventions.
Apply Population Health Principles
Population health concepts help nurses provide patient-centered care while addressing cultural, environmental, and socioeconomic factors that influence health outcomes.
Promote Disaster Preparedness
Nursing professionals develop competencies in emergency preparedness, disaster response, and public health advocacy during natural disasters, disease outbreaks, and community emergencies.
Integrate Evidence-Based Health Promotion
Students learn to design cost-effective health promotion strategies that incorporate scientific evidence, ethical principles, and legal considerations.
Build Collaborative Partnerships
Successful health promotion requires collaboration among healthcare providers, public health agencies, community organizations, policymakers, and patients to improve health equity and eliminate barriers to care.
Essential Epidemiology Terms Every Nursing Student Should Know
Understanding key epidemiological concepts helps nurses interpret research findings, communicate effectively with interdisciplinary teams, and make informed clinical decisions.
Incidence
Incidence measures the number of new cases of a disease that develop within a defined population over a specific period.
Prevalence
Prevalence refers to the total number of existing cases of a disease within a population at a particular point in time.
Morbidity
Morbidity describes illness, disease, or health complications experienced within a population.
Mortality
Mortality measures deaths associated with a particular disease or health condition.
Risk Factor
A risk factor is any characteristic, behavior, lifestyle choice, environmental exposure, or genetic trait that increases the likelihood of developing a disease.
Population Health
Population health focuses on improving the health outcomes of groups of people by addressing healthcare access, education, environmental conditions, and social determinants of health.
Incidence measures new cases, prevalence measures existing cases, morbidity refers to illness, and mortality refers to deaths within a population.
How Epidemiology Improves Public Health
Epidemiological research supports nearly every aspect of public health planning and healthcare delivery. By analyzing disease patterns and health trends, healthcare professionals can develop effective prevention strategies and improve community health outcomes.
Public health agencies use epidemiological evidence to:
Develop vaccination programs.
Monitor infectious diseases.
Reduce chronic disease prevalence.
Improve maternal and child health.
Address health disparities.
Respond to disease outbreaks.
Allocate healthcare resources efficiently.
Evaluate prevention programs.
These efforts reduce preventable illnesses, strengthen healthcare systems, and improve the overall health of communities.
Understanding Health Promotion
Health promotion is the process of enabling individuals and communities to improve control over their health through education, supportive environments, healthy public policies, and evidence-based interventions. Unlike traditional healthcare, which often focuses on diagnosing and treating disease, health promotion emphasizes prevention and long-term wellness.
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), health promotion addresses the underlying social, environmental, and behavioral factors that influence health rather than treating illness after it occurs.
Nurses play an essential role by educating patients, encouraging healthy lifestyle choices, advocating for public health policies, and supporting preventive healthcare initiatives.
Health promotion empowers individuals and communities to improve health through education, supportive environments, and evidence-based preventive strategies.
Why Health Promotion Is Important
Health promotion improves both individual and population health by reducing preventable diseases and encouraging healthier lifestyles.
Its benefits include:
Preventing chronic diseases before they develop.
Encouraging healthy lifestyle behaviors.
Improving quality of life.
Reducing healthcare costs.
Promoting health equity.
Strengthening community resilience.
Supporting healthy aging.
Reducing health disparities.
As healthcare increasingly focuses on prevention, health promotion has become one of the most effective approaches for improving long-term health outcomes.
The Three Core Elements of Health Promotion
The World Health Organization identifies three essential components that support effective health promotion strategies.
Good Governance for Health
Health outcomes are influenced by policies related to healthcare, education, housing, transportation, employment, and environmental protection.
Examples include:
Smoke-free legislation.
Vaccination policies.
Food safety regulations.
Clean water initiatives.
Air quality standards.
Workplace safety programs.
Strong public policies make healthy choices easier and more accessible for everyone.
Health Literacy
Health literacy refers to an individual’s ability to obtain, understand, evaluate, and use health information to make informed decisions.
Nurses improve health literacy by:
Explaining medical information in simple language.
Teaching medication management.
Providing preventive health education.
Encouraging routine health screenings.
Helping patients understand treatment plans.
Improved health literacy is associated with better treatment adherence, enhanced chronic disease management, and fewer hospital readmissions.
Healthy Communities
Communities play a significant role in determining health outcomes. Access to healthcare, safe housing, nutritious food, education, transportation, parks, and recreational facilities all contribute to healthier populations.
Healthy communities commonly provide:
Accessible healthcare services.
Safe parks and recreational spaces.
Walking and cycling paths.
Community wellness initiatives.
Mental health resources.
Healthy food options.
Creating supportive environments encourages healthier lifestyles and helps prevent disease across entire populations.
Evidence-Based Practice in Epidemiology and Health Promotion
Evidence-based practice (EBP) combines the best available research evidence with clinical expertise and patient preferences to improve healthcare outcomes. Rather than relying solely on tradition or routine practice, EBP ensures that healthcare decisions are grounded in high-quality scientific evidence.
In nursing, evidence-based practice strengthens patient safety, enhances treatment effectiveness, and promotes consistent, high-quality care across healthcare settings.
Healthcare professionals integrate:
Current scientific research.
Clinical expertise.
Available healthcare resources.
Patient values and preferences.
This approach supports informed clinical decision-making while improving both individual and population health outcomes.
Types of Epidemiological Data
Epidemiological research relies on accurate data to identify disease patterns, monitor health outcomes, and evaluate the effectiveness of healthcare interventions. Nurses and public health professionals use both qualitative and quantitative data to assess population health, support evidence-based decision-making, and improve patient care.
Understanding these data types enables nursing professionals to interpret research findings accurately and develop targeted interventions for diverse populations.
Citation-friendly snippet: Epidemiological data are generally classified as qualitative (categorical) or quantitative (numerical), and both types are essential for assessing population health and guiding evidence-based nursing practice.
Qualitative (Categorical) Data
Qualitative data describe characteristics, attributes, or categories rather than numerical measurements. This type of information helps healthcare professionals compare health conditions across different demographic groups and identify population-level patterns.
Examples of qualitative data include:
Gender
Blood type
Smoking status
Marital status
Race or ethnicity
Disease classification
Occupation
Vaccination status
Qualitative data are especially valuable when examining health disparities, behavioral risk factors, and social determinants of health.
Quantitative (Numerical) Data
Quantitative data consist of measurable values that can be analyzed using statistical methods. These data allow researchers to identify trends, calculate averages, evaluate treatment outcomes, and compare health indicators across populations.
Common examples include:
Age
Blood pressure
Height
Weight
Body mass index (BMI)
Blood glucose levels
Cholesterol levels
Heart rate
Hospital length of stay
Quantitative data help healthcare professionals evaluate disease progression, measure intervention effectiveness, and monitor improvements in patient outcomes over time.
Measures of Central Tendency
Healthcare researchers frequently collect large datasets that can be difficult to interpret without statistical analysis. Measures of central tendency summarize these datasets by identifying the most representative value, making it easier to compare health outcomes and identify trends.
The three primary measures of central tendency are the mean, median, and mode.
Mean
The mean, commonly known as the average, is calculated by adding all observations together and dividing by the total number of observations.
For example, researchers may calculate the average systolic blood pressure of patients attending a community health clinic to evaluate cardiovascular health trends.
The mean works best when data are evenly distributed without significant outliers.
Median
The median is the middle value when observations are arranged from the lowest to the highest.
Unlike the mean, the median is less affected by unusually high or low values. It is particularly useful when analyzing income levels, hospital stay durations, or healthcare costs where extreme values may distort the average.
Mode
The mode represents the value that occurs most frequently within a dataset.
Healthcare researchers often use the mode to identify:
The most common chronic disease within a community.
The most frequently prescribed medication.
The age group with the highest disease incidence.
The most common reason for hospital admission.
Using all three statistical measures together provides a more comprehensive understanding of population health data.
CMean represents the average value, median identifies the middle value, and mode indicates the most frequently occurring value within a dataset.
Performance Measures in Public Health
Performance measures evaluate how effectively healthcare systems, public health programs, and clinical interventions achieve their intended goals. These indicators help healthcare organizations monitor quality, improve patient outcomes, and ensure accountability.
For nurses, performance measures provide valuable insights into areas requiring improvement and support continuous quality improvement initiatives.
Common public health performance indicators include:
Vaccination coverage rates
Hospital readmission rates
Healthcare-associated infection rates
Patient satisfaction scores
Preventive screening rates
Maternal mortality rates
Infant mortality rates
Chronic disease management outcomes
Emergency department utilization
Immunization compliance
Healthcare organizations regularly analyze these indicators to improve patient safety, allocate resources more effectively, and strengthen preventive healthcare programs.
The Role of Nurses in Evidence-Based Population Health
Modern nursing is increasingly population-focused. Rather than addressing illness only after it develops, nurses work proactively to identify health risks, educate communities, and implement preventive interventions that improve long-term health outcomes.
Epidemiology provides the scientific evidence needed to guide these activities.
Nurses contribute to population health by:
Collecting and interpreting health data.
Identifying high-risk populations.
Implementing disease prevention strategies.
Supporting vaccination campaigns.
Promoting healthy lifestyle behaviors.
Evaluating healthcare interventions.
Participating in public health surveillance.
Educating individuals and families.
These responsibilities enable nurses to improve healthcare quality while reducing preventable illnesses.
Practical Applications of Epidemiology in Nursing Practice
Epidemiological principles influence nearly every aspect of nursing practice, regardless of the healthcare setting. Nurses use population health data to develop interventions that improve patient safety, reduce disease transmission, and enhance community well-being.
Community Health Assessments
Community health nurses use epidemiological data to evaluate the health needs of local populations. By analyzing disease prevalence, environmental risks, and healthcare access, they identify priority health concerns and develop targeted intervention programs.
Examples include:
Diabetes prevention initiatives
Obesity reduction programs
Smoking cessation campaigns
Maternal and child health services
Mental health awareness programs
These assessments allow healthcare organizations to allocate resources where they are needed most.
Infectious Disease Prevention
One of the most visible applications of epidemiology is controlling infectious diseases.
Nurses help reduce disease transmission by:
Monitoring communicable disease outbreaks.
Reporting infectious diseases to public health authorities.
Educating patients about hand hygiene.
Promoting vaccination programs.
Implementing isolation precautions.
Conducting contact tracing when appropriate.
During outbreaks such as seasonal influenza or emerging infectious diseases, epidemiological surveillance enables healthcare professionals to respond quickly and protect vulnerable populations.
Chronic Disease Management
Chronic diseases account for a significant proportion of healthcare utilization worldwide. Epidemiological research helps identify the behavioral, environmental, and genetic factors that contribute to these conditions.
Nurses apply this knowledge by educating patients about:
Healthy nutrition.
Regular physical activity.
Medication adherence.
Weight management.
Smoking cessation.
Blood pressure monitoring.
Blood glucose control.
Preventive education helps reduce complications while improving long-term quality of life.
Health Education and Promotion
Health education remains one of the most important nursing responsibilities.
Using epidemiological evidence, nurses develop educational programs that encourage healthier behaviors and reduce disease risk.
Topics commonly addressed include:
Nutrition and healthy eating.
Physical activity.
Mental health awareness.
Substance abuse prevention.
Sexual health.
Cancer screening.
Immunization.
Stress management.
Health promotion initiatives empower individuals to take an active role in maintaining their health.
Emergency Preparedness and Disaster Response
Nurses play a vital role in emergency preparedness by applying epidemiological principles before, during, and after disasters.
Responsibilities include:
Assessing community vulnerabilities.
Supporting emergency response planning.
Participating in disaster drills.
Monitoring disease outbreaks following disasters.
Educating communities about emergency preparedness.
Coordinating care for displaced populations.
Effective preparedness minimizes health risks and improves community resilience during emergencies.
Social Determinants of Health and Population Health
Health outcomes are influenced by far more than medical treatment alone. Social determinants of health significantly affect disease risk, healthcare access, and overall well-being.
These determinants include:
Income level.
Education.
Employment.
Housing quality.
Access to healthcare.
Food security.
Transportation.
Environmental conditions.
Social support.
Understanding these factors allows nurses to develop holistic care plans that address the underlying causes of poor health rather than focusing solely on disease treatment.
Social determinants of health—including education, income, housing, and healthcare access—play a major role in shaping population health outcomes and health equity.
Health Equity in Nursing Practice
Health equity means ensuring that everyone has a fair opportunity to achieve their highest possible level of health. Nurses advocate for equitable care by recognizing barriers that prevent individuals and communities from accessing healthcare services.
Strategies for promoting health equity include:
Providing culturally competent care.
Reducing language barriers.
Addressing healthcare disparities.
Supporting underserved communities.
Promoting accessible preventive services.
Advocating for inclusive healthcare policies.
Health equity is a central goal of public health and an essential component of professional nursing practice.
Collaboration in Public Health
Successful health promotion requires collaboration among multiple stakeholders. Nurses frequently work alongside physicians, pharmacists, dietitians, social workers, educators, public health agencies, and community organizations to improve population health.
Collaborative partnerships help:
Expand preventive healthcare services.
Improve patient education.
Address social determinants of health.
Increase healthcare accessibility.
Strengthen disease prevention efforts.
Improve emergency preparedness.
Interdisciplinary teamwork enables healthcare professionals to develop comprehensive solutions that address complex public health challenges.
Integrating Epidemiology, Health Promotion, and Evidence-Based Practice
The strongest healthcare outcomes occur when epidemiology, health promotion, and evidence-based practice are integrated into everyday nursing care.
Together, these disciplines allow nurses to:
Analyze disease trends using epidemiological data.
Identify health risks within populations.
Develop evidence-based interventions.
Educate patients using current clinical guidelines.
Evaluate healthcare outcomes.
Improve quality of care.
Reduce preventable diseases.
Promote healthier communities.
This integrated approach supports patient-centered care while advancing the goals of population health and preventive medicine.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is epidemiology in nursing?
Epidemiology in nursing is the study of how diseases develop, spread, and affect different populations. Nurses use epidemiological data to identify health risks, monitor disease trends, develop prevention strategies, and improve patient and community health outcomes through evidence-based care.
In nursing, epidemiology helps healthcare professionals understand disease patterns, identify at-risk populations, and develop evidence-based interventions that improve public health.
Why is epidemiology important in healthcare?
Epidemiology provides healthcare professionals with reliable data to understand disease patterns, evaluate risk factors, monitor outbreaks, and assess the effectiveness of healthcare interventions. This information supports informed decision-making, improves patient safety, and strengthens public health planning.
Key benefits include:
Early detection of disease outbreaks.
Better allocation of healthcare resources.
Identification of vulnerable populations.
Evaluation of prevention programs.
Support for evidence-based policies.
Improved health outcomes.
What is health promotion?
Health promotion is the process of helping individuals and communities gain greater control over their health by encouraging healthy behaviors, improving health literacy, and creating supportive environments that reduce disease risk and improve overall well-being.
Unlike traditional healthcare, which often focuses on treatment after illness occurs, health promotion emphasizes prevention and long-term wellness.
Why is health promotion important in nursing?
Health promotion is a core responsibility of nurses because it helps prevent disease, encourages healthy lifestyle choices, and empowers patients to participate in their own care.
Health promotion enables nurses to:
Reduce preventable illnesses.
Improve chronic disease management.
Increase patient awareness.
Support healthy aging.
Promote health equity.
Enhance community well-being.
What are the three core elements of health promotion?
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), effective health promotion is built on three interconnected elements:
Good Governance for Health
Governments and healthcare organizations develop policies that support healthier living, including tobacco control laws, vaccination programs, environmental protections, and workplace safety regulations.
Health Literacy
Health literacy enables people to obtain, understand, evaluate, and apply health information when making healthcare decisions.
Healthy Communities
Healthy communities provide access to healthcare services, nutritious foods, safe housing, education, transportation, recreational facilities, and supportive environments that improve population health.
What is evidence-based practice (EBP) in nursing?
Evidence-based practice is a systematic approach that combines the best available scientific research, clinical expertise, available resources, and patient preferences to guide healthcare decisions.
EBP improves nursing care by:
Enhancing patient safety.
Improving treatment effectiveness.
Reducing unnecessary interventions.
Standardizing clinical practice.
Supporting better health outcomes.
Evidence-based practice integrates scientific evidence, clinical expertise, and patient preferences to improve healthcare quality and patient outcomes.
What are qualitative and quantitative data in epidemiology?
Epidemiological research relies on two primary categories of data.
Qualitative (categorical) data describe characteristics such as:
Gender.
Blood type.
Smoking status.
Race or ethnicity.
Disease category.
Quantitative (numerical) data include measurable values such as:
Age.
Blood pressure.
Weight.
Cholesterol level.
Blood glucose.
Heart rate.
Both types of data are essential for understanding disease patterns and evaluating healthcare interventions.
What are incidence and prevalence?
Although these terms are often confused, they measure different aspects of disease occurrence.
Incidence refers to the number of new cases of a disease occurring within a population during a specified period.
Prevalence refers to the total number of existing cases, including both new and previously diagnosed cases, at a specific point in time.
Understanding the difference helps nurses interpret research findings and evaluate community health trends.
What are measures of central tendency?
Measures of central tendency summarize datasets by identifying a representative value.
The three primary measures are:
Mean: The arithmetic average.
Median: The middle value in an ordered dataset.
Mode: The most frequently occurring value.
Healthcare researchers use these statistical measures to analyze patient data, compare health outcomes, and identify trends within populations.
How do nurses apply epidemiology in clinical practice?
Nurses use epidemiological principles across many healthcare settings to improve patient care and public health.
Common applications include:
Conducting community health assessments.
Monitoring infectious disease outbreaks.
Supporting immunization programs.
Educating patients about disease prevention.
Identifying high-risk populations.
Evaluating healthcare interventions.
Participating in quality improvement initiatives.
Promoting evidence-based practice.
These activities strengthen preventive healthcare and improve long-term health outcomes.
What is population health?
Population health focuses on improving the health outcomes of groups or communities rather than individual patients alone.
It considers multiple factors that influence health, including:
Healthcare access.
Education.
Income.
Housing.
Environmental conditions.
Nutrition.
Lifestyle behaviors.
Social support.
Population health strategies aim to reduce health disparities while improving the overall well-being of communities.
Why is health literacy important?
Health literacy enables individuals to understand medical information, follow treatment plans, and make informed healthcare decisions.
Higher health literacy is associated with:
Better medication adherence.
Improved chronic disease management.
Increased participation in preventive care.
Lower hospitalization rates.
Better overall health outcomes.
Nurses play a key role in improving health literacy by providing clear, patient-centered education.
How do epidemiology and health promotion work together?
Epidemiology identifies disease patterns, risk factors, and health trends, while health promotion uses this information to develop preventive strategies and encourage healthier behaviors.
Together, they help healthcare professionals:
Prevent disease.
Reduce health disparities.
Improve patient education.
Strengthen public health programs.
Enhance healthcare quality.
Improve population health outcomes.
Their integration forms the foundation of modern preventive healthcare and evidence-based nursing practice.
Key Takeaways
Epidemiology and health promotion are fundamental components of modern nursing because they support disease prevention, evidence-based practice, and population health improvement. Epidemiology provides the scientific framework for understanding disease distribution and identifying health risks, while health promotion empowers individuals and communities to adopt healthier behaviors and reduce preventable illnesses.
Conclusion
Epidemiology and health promotion are foundational disciplines that guide modern nursing practice and public health initiatives. Epidemiology helps nurses understand the distribution, causes, and determinants of disease, while health promotion focuses on preventing illness, encouraging healthy behaviors, and creating environments that support lifelong wellness. Together, these approaches enable nurses to make informed, evidence-based decisions that improve both individual and population health.
As healthcare increasingly emphasizes prevention, quality improvement, and health equity, nurses must be skilled in interpreting epidemiological data, applying evidence-based interventions, and addressing the social determinants of health. These competencies allow nursing professionals to reduce health disparities, improve patient safety, strengthen community resilience, and support sustainable healthcare systems.
Ultimately, integrating epidemiology, health promotion, and evidence-based practice empowers nurses to deliver high-quality, patient-centered care while advancing healthier communities and better public health outcomes.
References
American Public Health Association. (2024). What is public health? https://www.apha.org/what-is-public-health
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2024). Principles of epidemiology in public health practice (3rd ed.). https://www.cdc.gov/training-publichealth101/media/pdfs/introduction-to-epidemiology.pdf
Friis, R. H., & Sellers, T. A. (2021). Epidemiology for public health practice (6th ed.). Jones & Bartlett Learning.
NU505 Unit 1 Seminar
Melnyk, B. M., & Fineout-Overholt, E. (2023). Evidence-based practice in nursing & healthcare: A guide to best practice (5th ed.). Wolters Kluwer.
Stanhope, M., & Lancaster, J. (2024). Public health nursing: Population-centered health care in the community (11th ed.). Elsevier.
World Health Organization. (2024). Health promotion. https://www.who.int/news-room/questions-and-answers/item/health-promotion
World Health Organization. (2024). Health topics: Public health. https://www.who.int/health-topics
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